What did Edward Tolman's studies on rats that developed cognitive maps show?

A) Learning cannot occur without reinforcement.
B) Rats are spatially deficient.
C) Learning can occur without behavioral change.
D) Cognitive maps can produce disorientation.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of the layout of an environment that people use to navigate and understand spatial relationships.

Edward Tolman

An American psychologist known for his contributions to cognitive psychology and the theory of latent learning, which suggests that learning can occur without immediate reinforcement and can be manifested later when needed.

Spatially Deficient

Generally refers to a lack of ability or inefficiency in understanding spatial relationships.